In Search of the Perfect Buddha
April 2008
It is nearly impossible to travel to Asia and not be entranced by the Buddha in all his sublime sculptural representations. From the fame Ellora caves in India to glittering Thai temples, the majestic ancient city of Angkor in Cambodia and the magical Potala Palace in Tibet, his serene, meditative countenance seems to calm and reassure us on our life's journey.In Western culture, images of the Buddha have become increasingly ubiquitous, on candles, T-shirts or posters, in holistic spas, trendy new restaurants or our own homes. And Buddhism continues to blossom, spurred by the mass popularity of the Dalai Lama and his message of peace, the surge of interest in meditation, increased travel to Asia, and books and museum exhibitions such as “Return of the Buddha: The Qingzhou Discoveries” at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery in Washington, D.C., in 2004. One of the most powerful aesthetic expressions of this profound religious philosophy can be found in the exquisite bronze, stone, marble and wood sculptures of the Buddha that were created for centuries across Asia by mostly anonymous artists. Long prized as among the finest sculptures ever made, the best examples project a peaceful, transcendent essence that is particularly appealing to today’s collectors.
“Now more than ever, we seem to have a strong desire for tranquility, greater harmony, beauty and peace in our lives,” says New York dealer William Lipton. “For most Westerners, the Buddha is not viewed so much as a religious figure, but as a manifestation of these timeless qualities. It is more soothing to look at a smiling image of the Buddha than the Corpus Christi, for example, with its emphasis on pain and suffering.”
Throughout history, sculptures of the Buddha (or Enlightened One) were commissioned as religious icons by temples, monasteries and wealthy devotees who were eager to gain merit for their next lifetime on the Buddhist wheel of reincarnation. Prince Siddhartha Gautama, the historic founder of Buddhism, served as the model for many of these sculptures. Born in 600 B.C. in northeastern India, Siddhartha Gautama is also called Shakyamuni Buddha (meaning “sage of the Shakyas,” his family clan name), and is said to have renounced his privileged life to become a wandering ascetic who ultimately achieved enlightenment after meditating for years under a fig tree at the sacred site of Bodhgaya in India. He then set out to spread his new religion of wisdom, compassion and meditation, teaching that human beings can be released from suffering by overcoming the ego and its belief in separation, and understanding the impermanence and interconnection of all existence. These conditions, he said, were necessary for attaining nirvana or enlightenment.
From the second to the sixth century A.D., Buddhism spread northward from India to Nepal and Tibet; to China and Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Indonesia; and eventually to Korea and Japan. During this time, sculptures of the Buddha began to proliferate, as traveling proselytizing monks and merchants brought with them illustrated scrolls containing images of the Buddha that inspired local artists and craftsmen. “Each culture produced its own unique artistic expressions of the Buddha and the universal ideals he represented, while observing specific iconographic characteristics set forth in sacred texts that identified a sculpture as a Buddha,” says Adriana Proser, the curator of traditional Asian art at the Asia Society Museum in New York.
For example, Buddha sculptures typically display curled hair; an ushnisha, or protuberance on the head representing his superior intelligence; and an orna, or carved circular tuft of hair on the forehead that is said to be a mark of nobility and illumination. Other identifying characteristics include extended earlobes, which refer to the heavy earrings worn by the historical Buddha before he abandoned his life as a prince, and wheel images on the palms or the soles of the feet, which represent the Buddhist teachings, or dharma. The Buddha is often depicted seated in a cross-legged meditation pose (sometimes on a lotus flower or throne, signifying purity) or as a standing figure engaged in teaching, wearing a pleated garment and displaying a variety of mudras (hand gestures) associated with significant events in his life. Two of the most common mudras are the earth-touching gesture, whereby the Buddha calls earth as a witness to his enlightenment and triumph over temptation, and the welcoming, have-no-fear gesture in which he holds up one hand.“For all Buddhists, the Buddha is a symbol of transcendent wisdom,” Proser says. “Yet the artists tried to create sculptures that looked sympathetic and had a sense of humanity, so that people could more easily relate to them. As a manifestation of the Buddha himself, these sculptures were not only made to inspire awe and respect but to encourage devotees to follow his enlightened example.”
Some of the earliest, best-known Buddha sculptures adorned monasteries and stupas (a mound or dome symbolic of the faith that may also contain Buddhist relics) in the northwestern Indian regions of Mathura and Gandhara (spanning parts of what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan) from the first to fifth centuries A.D. Sculpted principally from gray schist and stucco, Gandharan Buddhas display a hybrid Greco-Roman Indian style that developed due to the region’s strategic location at the hub of the ancient Silk Route. Alexander the Great’s invasion in the fourth century B.C. also facilitated the transfer of Greek culture. Classical pleated drapery and realistic, muscular features are among the defining aesthetic characteristics of Gandharan Buddhas.
But it is the bronze and red sandstone Buddha sculptures created under the Gupta Empire in North India from the fourth- to sixth-centuries A.D. that are considered the supreme expression of Buddhist art. “The Gupta Buddha is the ideal Buddha, the prototype that influenced the best Buddha sculptures throughout Asia for centuries,” says New York dealer Carlton Rochell. “All the other succeeding Buddhas pay homage to the graceful, elegant, humanistic Gupta models. No other type of Buddhist sculpture so masterfully integrates such serene spirituality with the dynamic sensuality that is so characteristic of Indian sculpture. Gupta Buddhas, which are among the rarest because so few have survived, display the ultimate synthesis of the human and the ideal.”
Although India was the birthplace of Buddhism, the religion as we know it today is more identified in the popular mind with Tibet, where Buddhists comprise the majority of the population. Bronze Tibetan Buddha sculptures, whether gilded or not, are among the most prevalent on the market. These Buddhas are often more formulaic and stylized than their Gupta precursors, observes Rochell. Given the complex iconography of Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddha sculptures appear in various guises in addition to the most common traditional Shakyamuni figure. The Medicine Buddha, for example, holds a medicine bowl, whereas Vairochana Buddha is depicted turning the Buddhist wheel of law. The most sought-after Tibetan examples date from the 12th to 15th centuries, the earlier Buddhas displaying a simpler, more humanistic style than the later ones, which are noted for their superb ornamentation and gilding.
Nepalese Buddha sculptures show a distinctive Indian influence, due to Nepal’s close proximity to India, which allowed for a fertile exchange between traveling artists. “Nepalese sculpture reached its zenith from the seventh to 13th centuries with the Newari artists of the Kathmandu Valley, who are considered among the greatest sculptors of Asia,” says Fabio Rossi of Rossi & Rossi in London. “They are noted for their beautiful, naturalistic, slightly youthful representations of the Buddha and had a great understanding of the human form.”
Bronze and stone Buddha sculptures began to appear in Southeast Asia in the sixth century. Khmer (the ancient civilization of present-day Cambodia) Buddha sculptures from the ninth- to 13th-century Angkor period are noted for their pared-down simplicity, restraint and subtle smiles, which endow them with a stunning, ethereal presence. “While there is a consciousness in all Asian cultures that the Buddha was Indian, Buddha sculptures nevertheless incorporated indigenous features and expressions that represented each culture’s own version of ideal beauty,” Proser says. “This ideal is expressed in everything from the shape of the head and eyes to the thickness of the lips, as evident in Khmer examples.” Thai Buddhas, which reached an aesthetic peak during the Sukothai Kingdom (13th–15th century), have more sinuous, elongated bodies and features, while displaying the distinctive Thai invention of the cranial flame, representing the Buddha’s radiant spiritual energy. “In contrast to Himalayan Buddha sculptures, Southeast Asian versions tend to be more abstract and introspective, and they are incredibly spiritual,” explains London dealer John Eskenazi.
The earliest Chinese Buddha sculptures also borrowed from their Indian predecessors, particularly from the humanistic Gandharan style, as images of the Buddha spread along the Silk Route and via the maritime trade. By the end of the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534 A.D.), Buddha sculptures made mostly of limestone had developed a distinctive Chinese character, expressed by Chinese facial features and a more austere aesthetic that emphasized stylized perfection over sensuality, according to New York dealer James Lally. “This transition can be seen in relief carvings from the famous Buddhist cave temples at Longmen and Yungang in northeastern China, which are highly sought after by collectors for their superb artistry,” Lally says.
By the Tang dynasty (618–907 A.D.), which is considered the Golden Age of Chinese sculpture, Buddhas had become more realistic and expressive, whether crafted in stone, bronze or marble. Gilt-bronze Buddhas made during the Ming (1368–1644 A.D.) and Qing (1644–1911 A.D.) dynasties are noted for their beautiful modeling and casting. They are especially prized by collectors when inscribed with Imperial reign marks denoting that they were made during the reign of a particular emperor and signifying the superior quality associated with the Imperial workshops. As in Tibet, Chinese Buddhas take on a variety of sculptural manifestations, ranging from Budai, the fat, happy Buddha of contentment, to Maitreya, Buddha of the Future, who is often depicted with an aureole, or halo-like disc.
The finest Buddha sculptures from Japan were made for temples and shrines during the Heian, Kamakura and Muramachi periods from the eighth to 16th centuries. Crafted mostly of hinoki (cypress) wood that was often lacquered and gilded, they can show a Chinese influence, particularly in the stance or pose of the figure, according to New York dealer Sebastian Izzard. Like many other Japanese art works, they come with storage boxes, which are sometimes inscribed with a provenance (ownership history) or restoration history that can add to their value.
Whatever the specific aesthetic style of any one Buddha sculpture, the finest examples across all cultures share similar attributes. Experts say the most sought-after Buddhas are not only expertly sculpted and cast with a graceful, well-proportioned form and finely executed features but also combine a recognizable humanity with an ineffable spiritual essence. “It’s especially important for a Buddha sculpture to have a beautiful face,” says Rochell. “A face with an intensely moving human expression can convey a vibrant, divine presence that is truly magical and takes your breath away.” Of course, there is always the more elusive, subjective response that a great work of art evokes. “Ultimately, a collector should ask: ‘How does this Buddha move me, personally?’ ‘How does it make me feel?’ There should be a strong emotional connection,” says Jim Marinaccio of New York’s Naga Antiques.
Large-size (30 inches or more) complete figures (whether seated or standing) with the aforementioned attributes tend to bring the highest prices. Additionally, these works are often in excellent condition. A top bronze Buddha sculpture, for example, typically would have a beautiful surface patina that is not flaky or friable, which would cause a loss of detail, and may sometimes display desirable malachite and azurite encrustations, according to New York dealer Nancy Wiener. Additionally, the most valuable gilded bronzes usually have retained most of their original gilding. Buddhas made of wood should not show significant pitting or warping, whether caused by exposure to moisture, woodworm or other harmful environmental effects, while stone Buddhas should not display excessive chipping or surface erosion, which also obscures sculptural detail. Although all ancient artworks typically show losses, Buddha sculptures nevertheless should be as intact as possible. As with other condition pitfalls, missing elements like a hand, ear lobe or lotus base can reduce the value, depending upon the aesthetic quality, rarity and historical significance of the sculpture.
The supply of top-quality ancient Buddha sculptures on the market is diminishing, as savvy collectors increasingly compete with dealers and museums for these examples. “Buddhist art and Buddha sculptures are more popular now than ever,” says Wiener. “The increase in demand is due to both a growing understanding and appreciation of Asian culture and a greater need for spirituality. The Buddha is such an easily recognizable, powerful cultural icon. And you don’t have to be a Buddhist to appreciate a beautiful Buddha sculpture.”Prices for the best Buddha sculptures have at least doubled over the past five years, soaring beyond the $10 million mark. Recent auction showstoppers have included a rare Imperial Ming-dynasty gilt-bronze figure of Shakyamuni Buddha that sold at Sotheby’s Hong Kong in October 2006 for $15 million, an auction record for Buddhist sculpture. At Sotheby’s New York in March 2004, a monumental second- to third-century standing Gandharan Buddha brought $736,000, an auction record for Gandharan art, while a large, circa 12th-century Tibetan Buddha sold at Christie’s in March 2007 for $712,000.
But a Buddha statue does not have to break the bank. Many fine examples—often simpler, smaller sculptures—still can be purchased for $10,000 to $100,000. Even so, it does not seem appropriate to put a price tag on the Enlightened One. Beholding one of these transporting works of art, we seem to catch a fleeting glimpse of nirvana, sensing that we are not isolated, fixed entities, but rather a process in time, connected to others and all life in a state of blissful unity. And we can almost hear the Buddha urging his disciples: “Work at your liberation with diligence. Be a lamp unto yourself.”
Art&Antiques New York Correspondent Dana Micucci is the author of several books on art, antiques and collecting.
IS IT A FAKE?
As with all antiquities, Buddha sculptures made over the centuries throughout Asia are not immune to the deceptive talents of forgers. But how does a collector distinguish between a fake and the real thing? “There are a lot of fake Buddha sculptures on the market in all media,” says New York dealer William Lipton. “You have to look at many examples and learn to identify their specific features, postures and expressions. Fakes are usually crudely sculpted or cast and not particularly beautiful. And there are other red flags. For example, if a gilt-bronze Buddha looks too shiny, then it’s likely not very old. On the other hand, if a Buddha looks too dull and ancient, then it could be a newly made Buddha that has been buried for a period of time to create the effect of age.”
Because these sculptures were made according to strict canonical rules, fakes can show mistakes in iconography and dating. “You may see improperly sized eyes and ears or find that an identifying characteristic such as the orna is missing,” says Fabio Rossi of Rossi & Rossi, London. “Or a Buddha that is sculpted in a 12th-century style may have a lotus base in a 17th-century style.”
“The most surefire way to avoid taking home a fake is to ask a reputable dealer for scientific tests, such as radiography for bronze or a microscopic scan for stone, which can help to verify a sculpture’s correct age,” says New York dealer Spencer Throckmorton. “The forgers may be clever, but ultimately they cannot give these sculptures life. Fakes never transmit the sacred sensibility of early Buddha sculptures.”
Books and Exhibitions
Buddhism: A Way of Life and Thought by Nancy Wilson Ross (Vintage Books, 1981).
Buddhist Art and Architecture by Robert E. Fisher (Thames & Hudson, 1993).
Buddhist Art: Images and Ideas by Denise Patry Leidy (Shambhala, upcoming, Aug. 2008).
Wisdom and Compassion: The Sacred Art of Tibet by Marylin M. Rhie and Robert A.F. Thurman, (Harry N. Abrams, 1991).
“Buddha in Paradise,” May 9–Aug. 18, Rubin Museum of Art, New York. 212.620.5000 rmanyc.orgSOURCE GUIDE
Berwald Oriental Art, New York
212.319.1519 berwald-oriental.com
Bonhams & Butterfields, San Francisco
415.861.7500 bonhams.com
Bonhams, London
011.44.20.7393.3900 bonhams.com
Carlton Rochell Asian Art, New York
212.759.7600 carltonrochell.com
Christie’s, New York
212.636.2000 christies.com
Crane Gallery, Seattle
206.298.9425 cranegallery.com
Honeychurch Antiques, Seattle
206.622.1225 honeychurch.com
J.J. Lally & Co., New York
212.371.3380 staff@jjlally.com
John Eskenazi Ltd., London
011.44.20.7409.3001john-eskenazi.com
Naga Antiques Ltd., New York
212.593.2788 nagaantiques.com
Nancy Wiener Gallery, New York
212.360.7028 asianart.com/nwiener
Rossi & Rossi Ltd., London
011.44.20.7734.6487 asianart.com/rossi
Sebastian Izzard LLC, New York
212.794.1522 izzardasianart.com
Sotheby’s, New York
212.606.7000 sothebys.com
Throckmorton Fine Art Inc., New York
212.223.1059 throckmorton-nyc.com
William Lipton Ltd., New York
212.751.8131 williamliptonltd.com
Xanadu Gallery, San Francisco
415.392.9999 xanadugallery.us